Volume 64, No. 2

Abstract

The recruitment and retention of music education majors from underrepresented populations are emerging as crucial focal points in music education discourse. As the field collectively grapples with the urgency of addressing these concerns, there is a growing consensus on the need for innovative and inclusive approaches to bring about sustained progress. This paper is the first of a two-part series investigating the recruitment and retention of students from underrepresented populations in undergraduate music teacher education programs across the United States and Canada. The focus of this paper is to provide an overview of existing scholarship pertaining to the recruitment and retention of underrepresented populations in music programs. The review includes literature and research concerning recruitment practices, barriers influencing enrollment and retention, the consequent impacts on underrepresented students and strategies to mitigate these concerns.  Key recommendations include a commitment to design environments that resonate with the cultural identities of students, obtaining feedback from underrepresented students to inform recruitment and retention initiatives, fostering strong leadership that support incorporating principles of Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, Access, and Belonging (DEIAB), reconstructing music curricula, promoting mentorship and expanding the audition requirements.

Introduction                                                                                                      

Recruitment and retention of music teachers at all grade levels from underrepresented populations is a rising concern within music education. According to Austin (2021), the music education profession needs to place a focus on the recruitment, licensing, hiring, mentoring and retention of minoritized music teachers. He notes that this issue requires attention at all levels of music teacher education to understand how existing efforts have “failed to gain traction” (p. 8) and collectively work to develop meaningful solutions toward real progress.

This imperative was underscored during listening sessions hosted by the Council for Music Education for College Music Society members in the Fall of 2022. The council, tasked with "identifying and analyzing issues of professional concern, particularly those that lead to the fostering and enacting of systemic change in response to oppressions entrenched in the field" (College Music Society, 2024) embarked on examining recruitment and retention in music programs. This focus extended beyond anecdotal evidence as we delved into the research literature while also incorporating firsthand accounts and strategies shared by colleagues actively addressing the challenges faced by underrepresented populations in music education. The aim was to comprehensively examine the issue and contribute to the ongoing dialogue on implementing effective solutions. 

The outcomes of our work are presented in two parts to maximize the dissemination of valuable content and research. Part I offers an overview of existing scholarship related to the recruitment and retention of underrepresented populations in music programs. Part II delves into the findings of a survey and subsequent interview study that explore current institutional practices for recruiting and retaining students from underrepresented backgrounds.  

Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Demographics in Music Education

Gender, racial, and ethnic disparities persist across all facets of music education, from secondary music ensemble participation to collegiate enrollment and professional employment in both K-12 and tertiary music education. Elpus and Abril have meticulously documented these imbalances through a series of studies. In 2004, National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) data showed that high school students in music ensembles were 65.7% White, 15.2% Black, 10.2% Hispanic, 3.8% Asian, 0.7% American Indian/Alaskan Native, 0.2% Pacific Islander, and 4.3% multiracial. Additionally, 90.4% of students in music spoke English as their first and only language. The data represented a statistically significant overrepresentation of White students and a significant underrepresentation of Hispanic students (Elpus & Abril, 2011). A similar study using the 2009 NCES data showed comparable yet evolving demographics, with substantial differences between ensemble and non-ensemble music students identified in student characteristics of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, parental education, native language, and multiple markers of academic success, notably within instrumental ensembles (Elpus & Abril, 2019). Elpus's (2014) extensive analysis of ten cohorts of NCES studies spanning the years 1982 to 2009 reveals consistent gender imbalances within high school ensembles. In choir settings, the female-to-male student ratio consistently stood at 7:3, while band participation was 3:2. Orchestra programs exhibited an even more pronounced gender gap, with a ratio of 2:1 favoring male students. When examining race and ethnicity, White students are consistently and significantly overrepresented in music ensembles.

As students progress from K-12 education to college programs, the demographic imbalances become more extreme. The percentage of White undergraduate students has increased to 81%, with significant reductions of all other racial and ethnic identities (Black 4%, Hispanic/Latino 7%, Asian 2%, American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.5%, multiracial 2%) (DeAngelis, 2022). Importantly, while Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) represented only 5% of all institutions, their students comprised one-third of all Black music students. Similarly, Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs) represented only 6% of the overall institutions but served one-quarter of all Hispanic/Latino students (DeAngelis, 2022). These differences become more pronounced as students advance through higher levels of education. While 7.5% of all undergraduate music students at NASM institutions are Hispanic males and 5% are Hispanic females, when considering PhD students, these percentages dropped to 3.2% and 2% respectively (Hayes, 2020).

The growing imbalance of representation of marginalized populations in music education is reflected in professional positions. According to a survey of the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) membership, 90% of all K-12 music teachers are Caucasian, 2.2% African American, 1.2% Hispanic/Latino, 0.9% Asian, 0.2% American Indian/Alaskan Native, 0.1% Pacific Islander, and 3.2% multiracial or other (Matthews & Koner, 2017). This difference becomes even more evident when considering collegiate music teacher educators according to a survey of College Music Society (CMS) membership, who are 94% White, 3.6% Black, 0.9% Hispanic, and 0.6% Asian (Hewitt & Thompson, 2006). Another major shift occurs between K-12 and tertiary music education, as 61.3% of the K-12 teaching population is female (Matthews & Koner, 2017), compared to only 33.3% at the collegiate level (Hewitt & Thompson, 2006).

In the context of this discussion, "underrepresented" encompasses groups facing challenges in recruitment and retention within music education, particularly highlighting the experiences of marginalized individuals. Research in music education indicates that non-White students are underrepresented in music programs across the country (Elpus & Abril, 2011).

Challenges Faced by Underrepresented Student Populations in Music Education

Researchers have found that exposure to active music making can serve as a catalyst for long-term involvement in music for all students, but may be particularly impactful for students from low socioeconomic and ethnically diverse backgrounds (Alegrado & Winsler, 2020). However, scholars also recognize that music teachers must adopt more culturally relevant curricula and pedagogical practices to improve student engagement and involvement in music (McKoy & Lind, 2022). The growing lack of diversity among music teachers in the United States, coupled with the slow-moving implementation of culturally relevant music education nationwide, are contributing factors to the lack of student diversity in today’s music programs (Campbell, 2017; Costa-Giomi & Chappell, 2007).

Numerous concerns have been raised within scholarly discourse pertaining to the dearth of students and educators from underrepresented populations. These concerns encompass a range of issues, including, but not confined to, systemic racism (Hansen & Roberts, 2023; Robinson & Russell, 2022; Hess, 2017; Elpus, 2015); the dominance of Western classical music paradigms (Kajikawa, 2019); a pedagogical emphasis on private lesson instruction and individual performance achievements (DeLorenzo & Silverman, 2016); the widening disparity between student diversity and the predominantly White music teaching workforce (Elpus, 2015); financial underinvestment in socioeconomically disadvantaged and high-needs schools (Price-Brock, 2020); university music school audition processes that prioritize classical training and reading literacy at the expense of equally significant performance elements like aural skills, improvisation, and interpretation of stylistically diverse repertoire (DeLorenzo & Silverman, 2016; Sarath, Myers & Campbell, 2016); and challenges associated with teacher licensure examinations (Bennett et al., 2006; Price Brock, 2020), among other pertinent factors. These concerns have significant implications for music education outcomes. The underrepresentation of students and educators from marginalized populations not only perpetuates systemic inequities but also limits the diversity of perspectives and experiences within music classrooms. This lack of representation can result in a narrow curriculum that fails to reflect the cultural richness and musical traditions of all students, ultimately hindering their engagement, motivation, and overall learning outcomes. With such a broad list of concerns, a multi-level approach will be necessary for mitigation.

Given that licensure is a prerequisite for most positions in music education, an examination of the demographic composition of individuals taking the exam can offer insights into the demographic makeup of those entering the profession. From 2007 to 2012, data from the Praxis II music exam indicated that licensure candidates were comprised of 86% White individuals, 7.1% Black individuals, 1.9% Hispanic individuals, 1.8% Asian individuals, 0.3% Native American/Native Alaskan individuals, 0.3% Pacific Islander individuals, 1.5% multiracial or other individuals and 95.2% reported English as their first and only language. Not only were candidate demographics greatly imbalanced, but the median passing score rate was also significantly different by identity, with White male candidates consistently earning the highest Praxis scores, followed by White female, Black male, and Black female, in that order. While gender was not statistically significant, race was a significant factor for predictive margins of Praxis test scores as well as number of attempts required for a passing score. For example, 85.8% of White candidates achieved the national median passing score on their first attempt, in comparison with 41.7% of Black candidates (Elpus, 2015).

Recruitment

When discussing the recruitment of underrepresented populations in music education, it can be difficult to identify where in the pipeline to start. Though the number of minoritized students as a percentage of the total school-aged population in the United States has continued to grow over recent decades, the percentage of students from underrepresented groups who participate in performing ensembles remains stagnant (Abramo & Bernard, 2020). Because of various perceptions and numerous barriers regarding access to music education, student musicians of color are less likely to pursue music education in college as a viable career path (Palmer, 2011). Further research indicated that pre-collegiate students who do decide to pursue music education as a career are greatly influenced by their ensemble directors at the secondary level (Robison et al., 2020).

The literature on recruiting future music teachers from underrepresented populations appears to coalesce on the importance of identifying potential music teachers as early as possible (Abramo & Bernard, 2020; Palmer, 2011; Robison et al., 2020). However, experts in music education have shared the difficulties of recruiting minoritized music teachers due to several factors, including barriers to entry into university music schools, teacher licensure examinations, and the lack of representation amongst music teachers currently in the workforce (Bryant, 2022; Elpus, 2015). As the title of McLaughlin’s (2018) text on the power of opportunity in changing the lives of minority youth in Chicago states, "you can’t be what you can’t see."

Potential solutions have been proposed, such as establishing relationships with schools within the university's vicinity to familiarize students with faculty and the music programs available. Carothers et al. (2019) studied teacher shortages and cultural misalignment between teachers and communities. The researchers described a partnership between a university and local area school districts that developed a program to recruit high school students from diverse backgrounds into the teaching profession. The program offered dual enrollment courses and a summer camp to high school students interested in pursuing careers in teaching. The findings suggested that exposure to the teaching profession early in a student's secondary education is essential to shaping student perceptions of teaching as a viable career choice.

Barriers to Enrollment and Retention

Before students begin their collegiate studies, their cultural, educational, and community backgrounds have a significant impact on preparation opportunities and identity development. Studies of how home community impacts music education recruitment among marginalized populations suggest strong differences between potential students’ home communities and their collegiate expectations regarding the value of music education, financial limitations, familiarity with collegiate admission processes, and support from community and familial relationships (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Gerrard, 2021).

Through the lens of critical race theory, Palmer (2011) examined the barriers encountered by people of color who applied for admittance to music education programs with a predominantly White student population. Palmer (2011) found that admittance policies that heavily relied on grade point averages and standardized test scores rarely considered the location or socio-economic status of students applying for admission. Students of color were also less likely to have access to tutoring and quality preparation for standardized testing and were more likely to come from schools that were low-performing and underfunded (Robison et al., 2020).

Beyond admission into the universities, admission into music education programs have similar problems when it comes to equity and justice. Many schools of music require that students audition with Western classical repertoire that may or may not be familiar to students of underrepresented populations. The audition process itself emphasizes “Whiteness” in its performance sound, visual presentation, and musical styles that are overly prescriptive and elitist, creating obstacles for students who come from outside of White, middle-class backgrounds (Koza, 2009; Palmer, 2011). Abramo & Bernard (2020) conducted a collective case study of urban high school students of color and their teachers. Using an opportunity gap framework (Milner, 2012), the researchers interviewed music teachers, observed classes, and conducted focus groups at two urban high schools in the northeast United States. The researchers found that students and teachers held themselves to high standards and prioritized their own local culture as an important part of their music programs. However, students did not feel they should audition for a university school of music because the audition process did not reflect their own community music-making in terms of repertoire or culture.

Fitzpatrick et al. (2014) used a collective case study design to examine the experiences of six undergraduate music education students from marginalized populations throughout their process of applying to a school of music and on to the completion of their coursework. Due to a lack of resources, participants felt they were unprepared for the audition process and lacked all the information needed to be successful in applying and auditioning for a university school of music. For example, students often described filling out financial aid documents all by themselves with little help from others. Participants also mentioned the general lack of diversity on campus when they showed up for their school of music audition. Participants all described the influence of role models and mentors on their ability to succeed in music education degree programs, a theme also reflected in student responses from a study by Rickels et al. (2010). Further findings from Rickels et al. (2010) indicated that while students expressed a preference for mentors of the same race or ethnicity, the strength of the mentor-mentee connection, explicit and implicit encouragement of musical growth and career possibilities, and practical advice for navigating auditions and applications were of greater importance than the racial or ethnic identity of the mentor (Hamann & Walker, 1993; Robison et al., 2021).

DeLorenzo and Silverman (2016) interviewed pre-service and in-service music educators in New Jersey and found that participants had little support when pursuing a degree in music education. Several participants were encouraged by family and friends not to pursue a career in music education due to a concern over low salaries in the teaching field. A commonly cited concern of all participants was the lack of resources they had in high school to participate in private instruction on their principal instrument. Participants also described the feeling of culture shock that they had when arriving on a predominantly white campus. DeLorenzo and Silverman (2016) cautioned that change makers should listen carefully to the voices of students of color before rushing to make changes to impact recruitment and retention of students from marginalized populations.

Once students arrive on campus as undergraduates, similar issues continue to perpetuate. Students from minoritized backgrounds can find themselves stuck between cultures, no longer being fully accepted in their home societies and continuing to find themselves othered by their collegiate peers (DeLorenzo & Silverman, 2016; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014). In these situations, continued mentorship is critical to help students connect with the communities in which they live and study (Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kruse, 2013). Many students report lacking the time, financial, and physical resources expected to be successful in classes; experiencing discomfort on campus; and lacking courses and experiences that pertain to the communities in which they hope to teach, especially urban environments (DeLorenzo & Silverman, 2016). While identity formation as music educators does not vary based on ethnicity or gender identity, factors of social belonging, interactions with faculty and peers, and meaningful teaching experiences can significantly impact how students from minoritized backgrounds see themselves in the profession (McClellan, 2014). Having experiences with faculty and peers who recognize the extra and unique stresses placed on students from minoritized backgrounds and provide support to ensure that they do not “slip through the cracks” is critical (Bryant, 2022, p. 31).

Despite the barriers, students from underrepresented backgrounds who have found success in the admissions process report the importance of individual advocacy, access to financial assistance, workshops in navigating the audition process, and acknowledgment of varied incoming student experiences on their ability to successfully transition from high school into collegiate programs (DeLorenzo & Silverman, 2016; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014; Kruse, 2013).

Finally, it is known that teachers of color benefit not just students of color, but all students, which leads to improved outcomes regarding school attendance, test scores, graduation rates, and continuation to college (Dee, 2005; Villegas & Irvine, 2010). Consequently, challenges of recruiting and retaining teachers of color have led to low percentages of minoritized persons in teacher education programs (Simon et al., 2015).

Inclusivity in Higher Education

A key component in recruiting and retaining students is creating inclusive spaces that serve all students' needs. Diversity, equity, inclusion, access, and belonging (DEIAB) have emerged as critical pillars that shape the experiences and outcomes of students, faculty, and staff in higher education. Studies have shown that creating a diverse, equitable, inclusive, accessible space benefits everyone (Chicas-Mosier, Fogelman & Peretz, 2023), reduces prejudice (Hogan & Mallott, 2005) and positively affects cognitive outcomes (Bowman, 2010). Barnett (2020) explored the impact of integrating diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives within academic and social contexts on the perceptions of students of color within United States institutions and concluded that educating students towards outcomes promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion values is intricate and contingent on context. Recommendations included that institutional leaders at Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) aiming to incorporate diversity, equity, and inclusion into their core values must fully commit to examining historical legacies and addressing societal racism embedded in their policies and practices (Barnett, 2020). Additionally, Barnett (2020) asserts that it is not enough for academic leaders to merely acknowledge these issues; they must genuinely engage with them. They should also be responsive to concerns that their actions may not align with the institution's stated values and be willing to reevaluate and adapt their approaches accordingly.

The Culturally Engaging Campus Environment (CECE) scale, developed by Museus et al. (2016), is a comprehensive tool designed to enhance college success. The scale is comprised of nine core elements, categorized into two subgroups: Cultural Relevance (encompassing cultural familiarity, culturally pertinent knowledge, cultural community service, cross-cultural engagement, and culturally validating surroundings) and Cultural Responsiveness (embracing collectivist cultural orientations, humanized educational settings, proactive philosophies, and comprehensive support). Their initial qualitative inquiry revealed a positive correlation between these markers and a sense of belonging, particularly among racially diverse student cohorts.

 In a subsequent study assessing the model's effectiveness, Museus et al. (2018) discovered that utilizing the CECE model serves as an analytical framework for examining the impact of campus environments on outcomes for both White and ethnically diverse students. The researchers also noted that while commonalities in the perceptions of culturally engaging campus environments were more prominent than disparities between White students and students of color, one notable variance revolved around the connection between cultural validation and the sense of belonging among different racial groups. Furthermore, the researchers emphasized the significance of designing college environments that are attuned to the cultural identities of students.

In the context of music programs, Ford (2020) recommends addressing racial and cultural prejudice in classical music education in the West, particularly considering recent racial and political tensions in the United States and the United Kingdom. This involves engaging in culturally specific perspectives in teaching that acknowledges that the fundamental values embedded within the learning objectives and evaluative standards of academic programs are inherently Western in nature, rather than universally applicable. This recognition could serve as a constructive stride towards rendering educational methodologies transparent and amenable to critical examination, in contrast to their conventional and unexamined state (Ford, 2020). Additionally, Ford stresses not to give in to the deficit model where students are expected to “assimilate, or for the teacher to accommodate students based on false beliefs of how particular people learn.” (p. 4). Kinzer et. al., (2014) found similar results when interviewing students who were within one-to-three years reach of active contributions as members of music faculties in higher education on their suggestions for a more inclusive music program.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This review of literature has provided evidence of the challenges of recruiting and retaining underrepresented individuals in music education but also offers strategies to mitigate them. While we defined the term “underrepresented” earlier in the essay, it is important to note that the meaning of the term evolves contextually. Though the discussions included in this article are largely about race, ethnicity and gender, there are also connections made to socioeconomics, education, and other factors that warrant attention.

As music departments focus efforts on increasing a diverse student body, it is important to consider an intentional multi-layered approach. Collaborative initiatives involving PreK-12 teachers and administrators of color, educator preparation providers, and workforce development programs can play a pivotal role in implementing and sustaining efforts to attract, affirm, support, and advance teachers of color through each stage of their journey from student to educator. These initiatives should be grounded in holistic inclusivity, valuing the unique assets that students from underrepresented populations bring to the teaching profession.

Recruitment and retention initiatives should also be guided by DEIAB principles and include feedback and ideas from underrepresented students. Careful attention should be given to admission and audition policies and practices to eliminate barriers that exclude the musical expertise and experiences that underrepresented students bring. Additionally, the use of more holistic admissions practices, assistance in navigating the logistics of auditions, and transparency in communicating audition expectations can help those lacking cultural capital within traditional music programs find success (Abramo & Bernard, 2020; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014).

Once students enter the program, their musical expertise should continue to thrive in an inclusive environment. This will require that the existing curriculum includes spaces where students' cultural identities are recognized and valued. Educators are encouraged to provide spaces where students can find cultural resonance and connections with peers who share similar backgrounds. This can include organizing speaker series, workshops, and conferences tailored to the diverse heritage of the student body and integrating field trips into courses to foster learning from and with members of various cultural communities (Museus, Yi, & Saelua, 2018). Instructors should also foster a collaborative classroom culture focused on mutual success. They should be aware of diverse resources on campus and take the time to understand the specific challenges students may face, facilitating connections with relevant resources tailored to their individual needs (Museus, Yi, & Saelua, 2018).

Finally, fostering opportunities for mentorship for underrepresented students as they transition from high school and progress through the undergraduate program is a necessary layer of support and vital for their holistic development. Kimmel et al. (2021) offer the importance of having mentoring standards that embed diversity, equity, and inclusion. They suggest that mentors "deepen and maintain their own knowledge of equity principles and culturally responsive pedagogy to identify and address inequitable practices and serve as advocates for creating supportive environments in their schools and districts that enhance opportunities for educators to reach their personal and professional potentials" (p.12). Through these relationships, students should be provided guidance, support, and inspiration that contribute to personal and professional growth in music education.

While recognizing the ongoing need for a diverse educator workforce that mirrors the current and future landscape of music classrooms, it is crucial for post-secondary educators to continue to deepen their understanding of effective strategies for fostering success among an increasingly diverse student body. This understanding should be reflected in their teaching practices, curriculum, and recruitment efforts, creating an environment that is both supportive and conducive to learning for all students. Additionally, post-secondary educators should strive to create a culture of inclusivity and equity that values the unique perspectives and experiences of all students. As quoted by one of the student participants in the Kinzer et al. (2014) study “we are no longer living out Western art music as the single artistic-expressive choice- certainly not in our diverse communities, nor should we do so in our tertiary-level programs of musical education and training.” (p. 4).

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