Volume 65, No. 1

The incidence of overuse injuries or playing-related musculoskeletal disorders (PRMDs) among professional instrumentalists is well-documented. PRMD’s include any musculoskeletal symptom that interferes with the musician’s daily activities (Zaza 1998, 1020). In Kok et al.’s systematic review of 21 articles investigating playing-related musculoskeletal complaints in musicians, the aggregate data revealed a point prevalence of PRMDs between 9–68%, a 12-month prevalence between 41–93%, and a lifetime prevalence of 62–93% (2016). Instrumentalists who identify as women consistently report a higher prevalence of musculoskeletal complaints, with a rate as high as 97% in a study of 12-month prevalence among women orchestral musicians (Paarul et al. 2011). Rates vary among types of instruments, with brass players reporting the lowest incidence of PRMDs (Kok et al. 2016).

Conductors have largely been excluded from formal studies on musician PRMDs. In Kaneko et al.’s 2005 study of Brazilian orchestral musicians, only one conductor is included in the data set (n=241). Fry’s 1987 study of orchestral conductors revealed that shoulder pain in the baton arm was reported by 59% of conductors, in addition to discomfort in the hands and elbow of the baton arm and pain in the neck after studying scores in a sedentary position. In a 2022 study of Brazilian conductors, participants’ self-reports of pain and discomfort were compared with scores on two standardized surveys, the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ) and The Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand Questionnaire (DASH). Fifty percent of respondents reported pain in the back and neck associated with conducting activities, while 60% reported the right side was more affected than the left. Pain in the lower back, neck, ankle, and feet was correlated to standing for long periods of time while conducting. Use of the baton and a podium were both associated with a higher prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms in this study (Geraldo and Fiorini 2022). Previous research literature, although minimal, has provided evidence on the location of pain and some activities that are associated with the experience of pain for conductors.

Similarly, conductors are underrepresented compared to instrumentalists within the performing arts medicine literature. For example, a short description of common etiologies of medical problems for conductors is presented in Performing Arts Medicine, which includes shoulder, neck, and back pain, as well as injuries associated with misuse in holding a baton (Brandfonbrener 2017). Additionally, Sataloff warns that conductors are at risk for cumulative trauma disorders caused by repetitive motion in the shoulders, arms, and hands, including thoracic outlet syndrome, rotator cuff tendonitis, tennis elbow, golfer’s elbow, carpal tunnel syndrome, DeQuervain's tenosynovitis, and trigger finger (2008, 31). To this list, Kella adds several conducting habits that may increase risk of injury: (1) twisting side-to-side when conducting an orchestra or larger ensembles, (2) locking knees while conducting, (3) conducting while seated on a stool with one foot elevated, (4) raising shoulders while conducting, (5) using forceful or angular conducting gestures without releasing physical tension on the gestural rebound, (6) non-neutral wrist alignment while conducting, (7) using excessive muscular tension when conducting intense music, and (8) gripping the baton aggressively (1992, 58–62).

Conducting places unique physical stressors on the body. The conductor’s posture is dynamic and involves a wide range of upper body movements that fulfill several different gestural functions, including influencing the physical technique and energy of instrumentalists and singers in the ensemble (Gumm et al. 2011). Conducting posture is also asymmetrical, with right and left arms assigned to different musical tasks, a playing position correlated to a higher incidence of PRMDs (Edling and Fjellman Wiklund 2009). The conductor’s musical score is often placed low in the visual field, while performers may be at eye-level and far to the right and left, leading to chronic forward-head postures and excessive movement of the torso with a static lower body (Daley, Marchetti and Ruane 2020). Conductors may also tend to lean toward the ensemble, leading to muscle imbalances involving tightness in the chest and weakness in the upper back (Averill 2011; Kella 1992). Unlike playing an instrument, conducting provides minimal tactile and somatosensory feedback to the mover as the conductor’s arms move freely in an open kinetic chain. This lack of tactile feedback makes movement regulation potentially more challenging for the conductor. Problematically, much of the conductor’s preparation to conduct is done in isolation; a process that does not generally include any form of physical practice, athletic training, or integration of analytical work with gestural practice (Baker 1992).

Outside of the physical demands of conducting, there can also be psychological and environmental stressors that contribute to musculoskeletal complaints. Many conductors juggle multiple positions in education, community, and faith-based settings, and may work with various levels of ensembles in each position. Geraldo and Fiorini (2022) found that Brazilian conductors do a range of job duties in addition to conducting, such as arranging, teaching, accompanying, singing, playing an instrument, and administrative duties (2022, 15). Brandfonbrener (2017) and Kella (1992) caution that professional conductors’ hectic travel schedules can introduce a high level of occupational stress. Furthermore, when conductors perform, it is often in new and changing venues, with potential stressors associated with sightlines, lighting, acoustics, staging, and ensemble collaboration.

Conducting instruction within higher education has historically relied on technical and analytical skill development, including gestural movement patterns, score study techniques, and rehearsal strategies (Baker 1992; Hanna-Weir 2013). An increasing body of literature supports the integration of somatic or body-movement pedagogies into conducting instruction, however. Buchanan endorses Body Mapping, a mind-body practice established by The Alexander Technique, to prevent injury and assist conductors to develop “inclusive awareness,” a synergistic relationship between the conductor’s internal body awareness and external aural and visual stimuli (2017, 112). Billingham advocates for Laban Movement Theory to develop conductor’s kinesthetic intelligence and to integrate the physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual dimensions of the body (2009). Mathers asserts that theories of expressive movement (Laban, Alexander, Dalcroze, Delsarte, and Feldenkrais) can help conductors develop expressive movement and non-verbal communication skills, aspects of conducting not generally taught in conducting textbooks (2008). In his study of Australian conductor-educators, Mathers found that several other movement methodologies, in addition to the above, were used in conductor training, including acting, calisthenics, dance, Pilates, Tai Chi, and yoga. Durrant suggests that instruction in expressive body movement and non-verbal communication are foundational components of both initial and advanced choral conducting curricula (2003). While there is growing evidence for the inclusion of these methods as a part of a holistic training for conductors, little is known about collegiate conductors’ prior training in these approaches, their perceived value of these approaches, and how these approaches are applied within the North American higher education context. 

The current mixed methods survey study investigated (1) the prevalence and severity of pain/discomfort associated with conducting among collegiate-level conductor-educators, (2) the personal and environmental factors that contribute to conducting pain/discomfort, (3) the use of prevention behaviors to mediate this pain/discomfort, and (4) prior instruction in injury prevention, body wellness, and movement methodologies, including integration of these topics into conducting instruction at the tertiary level. It was hypothesized that surveyed conductors would report a statistically significant prevalence of current or lifetime musculoskeletal symptoms, comparable to professional instrumentalists. Secondarily, it was expected that symptoms would be multifactorial and associated with personal and environmental factors, consistent with a biopsychosocial model of pain and disability (Meints et al. 2018). Thirdly, it was hypothesized that prior instruction in injury prevention, body wellness, and movement methodologies would be relatively uncommon among collegiate-level conductors.

METHODS

For this cross-sectional observational survey study, a convenience sample of subjects was recruited through three channels. First, subjects were recruited through professional forums on social media, including the following groups on Facebook: (1) I am a Choir Director, (2) Women Choral Conductors, and (3) Researchers in Music Education. Second, subjects were recruited via various service organization’s email distribution lists, including the National Association for Music Education, Choral Canada, American Choral Directors Association, College Band Directors National Association, and College Orchestra Directors Association. Third, subjects were recruited through direct email, with 1701 emails sent to collegiate-level conductors working at institutions accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music in the United States. The survey was deployed in June 2021 and closed in June 2022.

Conductors at all educational levels (K–12 and collegiate) were recruited (n=293). This paper presents only the data from conductors who identified as collegiate-level conductors who are also teaching undergraduate or graduate-level conducting courses. This population is defined as “conductor-educators” for the purpose of this paper (n=224). The only criterion for inclusion was to self-identify as a collegiate-level conductor who also teaches conducting at the undergraduate or graduate level. Demographic information was required for all survey respondents. Questions about pain and discomfort related to conducting, prior training in body wellness, injury prevention, and movement methodologies, and the integration of this information in conducting instruction were optional for respondents, resulting in a variable response rate for these questions.

The survey was developed using select questions adapted with permission from Berque et al.’s The Musculoskeletal Pain Intensity and Interference Questionnaire for Musicians (2014), including the demographic questions, point-prevalence, and lifetime prevalence questions. Questions about personal and environmental stressors, alterations to conducting practice, and use of prevention strategies were developed from the musician injury prevention literature (Horvath 2010; Rosset i Llobet and Odam 2016). The prior training section of the survey included a general question about instruction in body wellness and injury prevention within collegiate music study, and a specific question about exposure to movement methodologies within conducting training. Movement methodologies are defined as theories and approaches that promote embodied learning and have been applied to musician training in the existing pedagogical literature (Kleinman and Buckoke 2013; Lieberman 2004; Paparo 2022). The conductor-educator portion of the survey inquired into the nature and frequency of inclusion of information about body wellness, injury prevention, and movement methodologies in the participant’s teaching of conducting. The survey was made available in English only and was pilot-tested with a sample of collegiate conductor-educators in the United States. The survey development, subject recruitment, and distribution was approved as an expedited protocol by the Institutional Review Board of Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA (protocol #2021/02/2). Subject electronic consent to participate was included as the first survey question.

Survey responses were collected using Qualtrics software and exported via comma delimited file to SPSS version 27 for data reduction and analysis. The primary variables of interest were questions regarding the current or lifetime presence of pain/discomfort that interfered with conducting. An a priori sample size estimation indicated that at least 200 respondents would be needed to detect an injury prevalence of 30% at a precision of 7%. Dichotomous, multiple choice, Likert scale and open-ended question responses were collated for analysis. Prevalence of current and ever-experiencing pain/discomfort was estimated as the proportion of endorsed question responses (one sample proportion, 95% confidence interval). Demographic, personal, and environmental factors associations with self-reported pain/discomfort were estimated with contingency table analysis with chi square and .05 Type I error rate.

Open-ended responses that followed forced-choice questions were analyzed using a consensual coding process with two researchers to triangulate by analyst, increasing trustworthiness of the findings (Hill 1997). Data were entered in MAXQDA software for management and analysis. For each open-ended question, the two researchers first completed open coding of the questions independently, followed by a meeting and creation of a consensus code book. The data were then recoded with the codebook and comparisons were made between the two coders. If any codes needed to be merged or eliminated at this time point, this was discussed and updates to the codebook were made. This process continued until there was consistency around the coding structure and any remaining disagreements were handled by discussion. Findings for these questions are presented with overarching thematic groupings as the purpose of this analysis was to provide insight into additional areas for consideration.

RESULTS

Two hundred twenty-four collegiate-level conductor-educators participated in the survey (80.4% age 40 and older; 76% male). Thirty-three and a half percent of respondents self-identified as band conductors, 24.6% as choral conductors, and 9.8% as orchestral conductors. Thirty-two percent reported conducting multiple types of ensembles (e.g., band and choir). All participants conducted at the collegiate level; with 200 (89%) respondents conducting exclusively at this level, and 24 (11%) respondents conducting at multiple levels (Table 1).

Table 1: Respondent demographic characteristics (n=224)

Of the 224-survey collegiate conductor-educator respondents, 97% completed the question identifying the presence of lifetime pain and discomfort questions and how it interfered with conducting (n=217). Twenty-eight percent reported currently experiencing pain/discomfort that impacts their ability to conduct or perform their conducting responsibilities (95% CI=23-33). Sixty percent reported having ever experienced pain/discomfort that impacted their ability to conduct or perform conducting responsibilities (95% CI=54-66). Of those who had ever experienced pain/discomfort (n=130), 45% reported symptoms in multiple sites and/or persistent pain that interfered with conducting and 71% reported altering their conducting style or frequency due to pain/discomfort (Table 2). A current or history of pain/discomfort was not associated with the conductor's age, gender, years of conducting, or hours per week conducting in the primary setting.

Table 2. Prevalence of self-reported pain/discomfort (n, %) by severity of limitations (n=217).

Fifty-six percent of conductors who reported current pain/discomfort also reported personal and environmental stressors (95% CI 44-68%, P < .001). Seventy-four percent of conductors who had ever experienced pain/discomfort (95% CI 66-82%, P  < .001) also reported that personal and environmental stressors (e.g., wellness, financial/family concerns, work schedule) contributed to their pain/discomfort. Forty-four percent of conductors who reported ever experiencing pain/discomfort (n=96) endorsed multiple environmental contributors to pain/discomfort (median=1, range 1–5). The most frequently endorsed personal/environmental category (n=164 responses) was “other health/wellness concerns” (n=49, 30%). An additional 36 (38%) of these respondents described their personal environmental stressors in open-ended responses. These respondents often reported that their personal factor was an injury that happened outside of conducting, including events such as motor vehicle accidents, sports injuries, and other health related problems. There was also a set of responses related to overuse, including an increase in conducting time and a change in the ergonomic conditions related to conducting (e.g., orchestra pit conducting). A few of these respondents noted the impact of age and stress.

Table 3. Frequency of personal/environmental stressors (164 responses).

Of the 130 respondents who ever experienced pain/discomfort, 96% (n=125) reported altering their conducting style. Ninety-two respondents provided additional description of these alterations. For example, respondents stated they altered their conducting movements, including using smaller and less aggressive gestures, alternating conducting arms, and lowering the horizontal plane. Other strategies included a reduction of participation in the activity, use of equipment during conducting (e.g., baton, stool), and incorporation of complementary movement methodologies or alternative health practices like Alexander Technique, Laban, and yoga. The least commonly reported method of altering conducting practice was to seek professional care (e.g., physical therapy).

Using open-text responses, 85% of conductor-educators (n=107/130) who have ever experienced pain/discomfort reported engaging in prevention strategies. Stretching was often reported, followed closely by different forms of complementary and alternative health activities (e.g., Alexander Technique and yoga), and the use of professional care, including seeing physical therapists, chiropractors, acupuncturists, and personal trainers. Additionally, respondents noted using activities that support health maintenance, like cardiovascular exercise and strengthening, engaging body awareness, and decreasing body tension while conducting. The least commonly reported strategies included changing ergonomics, warming-up the body, reducing participation in activity, using equipment during conducting (e.g., baton), and using an over-the-counter medication or physical agent modality (e.g., hot or cold pack).

Twenty-seven percent of collegiate conductor-educators indicated that they had received instruction in body wellness or injury prevention as a part of their music education in college or university (n=205/224). Fifty-four of these respondents completed the open-text option for this question, stating the types of instruction they learned. Alexander Technique was mentioned most frequently, while Laban Movement Theory, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, economy of movement, body scanning, stretching, and Jerald Schwiebert’s expressive movement resources for conductors were also mentioned. Respondents who were more specific as to the nature of their prior instruction reported that this instruction occurred in a partial format, rather than in a stand-alone course. This information was either embedded into a course or completed during a workshop, masterclass, or guest lecture. Some respondents did name specific stand-alone courses where this instruction was the focus, with Alexander Technique as the most common response, but other courses such as “Yoga for Performers” and “Music and Medicine” were also mentioned. Finally, a few respondents mentioned that they self-initiated these studies as either electives or through their own learning, independent of coursework.

Twenty-seven percent of collegiate conductor-educators indicated that they had received prior instruction in movement methodologies as a part of their conducting training (n=205/224). Alexander Technique (46.3%), Laban Movement Theory (37.6%), and Body Mapping (27.1%) were the most prevalent. Dalcroze Eurhythmics (19.7%), Feldenkrais (10.9%), Tai Chi (9.1 %), and Dance (16.7%) were less prevalent. Seventeen respondents entered “other” responses for this question, and indicated they had received instruction in yoga, mime, ChiGong, acting, and Tragar Approach as a part of their conducting training. As in the previous question, a few respondents noted that the training received was at their own initiative, self-taught, or was not related to conducting instruction.

When asked about what movement methodologies they integrate into conducting instruction, Laban Movement Theory (52.4 %, n=189), Alexander Technique (41.1 %, n=175) and Body Mapping (39.4 %, n=165) were most prevalent. Dance (29.2 %, n=168) and Dalcroze Eurhythmics (19.4 %, n=165) were the next most prevalent. Tai Chi (15.2 %, n=158) and Feldenkrais (4.6 %, n=151) were less commonly reported. Twenty-four respondents entered “other” responses for this question, with responses grouped into three categories: 1) named conducting or movement methodologies, 2) general description of conducting or movement techniques, and 3) mixture. Named conducting or movement methodologies included responses like Saito, Scherchen conducting techniques, Chi Gong, Trager Approach, yoga, mime, neutral mask, and Elizabeth Green exercises. General description of conducting or movement techniques included responses such as eliminating unnecessary tension, proper posture and grip, lower pattern, warm-up, stretching, PT exercises, and weight training. Lastly there were a small number of responses that indicated a mixture of named and general techniques. One respondent also reported mixing elements from two named techniques, Alexander Technique and Dalcroze Eurhythmics, specifically.

Conductor-educators reported relative agreement about the importance of incorporating body wellness and injury prevention into their conducting instruction (n=207). Approximately two thirds (68.6%) of these respondents agreed/strongly agreed that topics in body wellness and injury prevention are an essential part of their conducting instruction, whereas only 14% disagreed/strongly disagreed that these topics were essential. Only 5.7% (n=209) of respondents indicated that stand-alone courses in body wellness, injury prevention, or movement are a required part of their conducting curriculum, yet 76% (n=211) of respondents reported integrating some information about body wellness or injury prevention into their teaching at least once per semester. When asked if knowledge of body wellness, injury prevention, and/or movement methodologies is important to a successful conducting career (n=210), 52.4% strongly agreed with this statement, whereas only 2.9% disagreed and 0.5% strongly disagreed. When asked if knowledge of body wellness, injury prevention or movement methodologies contributed to their personal health and success as a conductor and conductor-educator (n=200), 38% strongly agreed with this statement, while 6% disagreed and 0.5% strongly disagreed.

DISCUSSION

Investigation of conducting-related musculoskeletal disorders in conductors is limited in the available performing arts medicine research and pedagogical literature. Unlike prior studies of professional-level conductors, this study investigated the incidence of musculoskeletal pain and discomfort among North American collegiate-level conductors leading band, choral, orchestral, and other ensembles. This investigation also sought to investigate how topics in health and wellness and mind-body awareness are approached in conducting instruction. The results revealed that collegiate conductors have (1) a relatively high incidence of pain/discomfort that impacts their work, (2) a frequent use of preventative behaviors to mitigate this pain/discomfort, (3) a relative lack of prior exposure to information about occupational health in their own education, and a (4) a high value for teaching conducting students about occupational health through a range of methodologies.

Collegiate conductors in this study reported experiencing musculoskeletal pain/discomfort at similar rates to other professional musicians, with a lifetime prevalence of 60% and a point prevalence of 28%. Unlike in instrumental groups, age and years of performing (conducting) were not associated with pain/discomfort, however the current sample was skewed to an older population (Rotter et al. 2020). Gender was also not a factor in this study, however prior studies have indicated that musicians who identify as women experience a higher incidence of playing-related injury (Kok et al. 2016).

Our finding that a relatively high percentage of respondents who reported pain/discomfort endorsed personal and environmental stressors as contributing factors is consistent with the biopsychosocial model of pain and disability, which indicates that pain and disability are inextricably connected to physiological, psychological, and social factors (Meints et al. 2018). Participants indicated that “other wellness concerns” were the most common stress factor affecting their conducting, including concerns related to sleep, nutrition, exercise, other physical stresses, a non-conducting-related injury, or changes in conducting activities. These responses underscore the multifactorial nature of musician PRMDs and suggest that conducting instruction should address the interrelationship between mental and physical health as essential dimensions of occupational wellness. Awareness of these factors and their reciprocal influences can potentially enhance the design of multidisciplinary strategies to improve prevention of performance-related health conditions and resulting disability in conductors.

This survey adds to the literature by identifying collegiate-level conductors’ prevention behaviors. Respondents actively engaged in prevention and intervention activities, including making adaptations to their conducting technique, pursuing complementary health practices such as Alexander Technique and yoga, and seeking professional care. In a systematic review of studies about injury prevention for musicians, Laseur et al. (2023) found that strength-based exercise programs were most effective in preventing musculoskeletal symptoms in musicians. In the present study, collegiate conductors reported using stretching more frequently than strengthening exercises. They were also less intent on integrating a physical warm-up or changing the ergonomics of their conducting set-up, dimensions of injury prevention that may assist conductors (Daley, Marchetti, and Ruane 2020). Daley, Marchetti, and Ruane (2020) suggest that effective injury prevention for conductors must include a combined physical and ergonomic approach, including increased awareness of (1) postural alignment, (2) static and dynamic stretching, (3) strengthening exercises for muscular endurance, (4) ergonomic modifications such as adjusting the height of music stand, and (5) use of corrective eyewear and comfortable footwear while conducting.

Although collegiate-based conductors in this study reported a relatively high incidence of pain/discomfort associated with conducting, their exposure to prior training in body wellness, injury prevention, and movement methodologies was relatively low (27%). Laban Movement Theory, Alexander Technique, and Body Mapping were most applied in their prior conducting training, a finding corroborated in Mathers’ study of Australian university-level conductor-educators (2008, 195). Respondents also indicated that they have encountered this type of material in workshop settings and through their self-initiated studies, not always within an institutional conducting course. Stand-alone courses on body wellness, injury prevention, and movement methodologies appear to be very uncommon in conducting programs (5.7%), with this material more often presented as enrichment within an existing conducting curriculum.

The results from this study highlight the need for increased instruction in sensorimotor integration and movement strategies to assist in the development of patterns and habits that can prevent future injury and support lifelong health and well-being of conductors. In North America, conducting is taught as a secondary instrument at the undergraduate level. Students may proceed to specialize in conducting at the graduate level. In conducting courses, students are introduced to new patterns and habits of physical movement that may be only loosely related to their prior embodied experiences as singers or instrumentalists. Students also bring their prior knowledge and experience with physical movement to the study of conducting, including personal movement patterns, posture, prior athletic or dance training, and sense of body awareness (Daley, Marchetti, and Ruane 2020).

Laban Movement Theory, Alexander Technique, and Body Mapping were most often integrated into conducting instruction by this population of conductors. These approaches were applied more broadly than within the participant’s own education, indicating that movement methodologies are gaining momentum within conducting pedagogy, and especially Laban Movement Theory. Collegiate conductors see great value in this type of instruction, both in their own experience and more broadly, to prepare students for a successful career in conducting. Conductor-educators also freely combined these approaches in their teaching, indicating that there is a perceived value in using multiple embodied pedagogies. Increased availability of this information, including more specialized training, may contribute to a higher level of implementation within conductor training programs, and eventually, the establishment of best practices for applying movement methodologies to support healthy conducting practices.

While this investigation yields some insight into the health and wellness of conductors and associated factors, there are potential limitations to the inferences that can be made from the survey responses. One limitation is in the inherent nature of survey research in that all data are self-reported and therefore influenced by the interpretation and accuracy of the individuals completing the survey. Participant bias may potentially lead to an overestimation of symptom prevalence due to increased likelihood of survey participation in the presence of conducting-related pain or discomfort. Additionally, the influence of other exposures such as instrumental playing, prior injuries, and non-musical exposures could not be fully determined. A future study may integrate a standardized survey instrument for assessing PRMDs in conductors, such as the DASH (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand), which has an optional module for performing artists, or the NMQ (Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire), as in the Geraldo and Fiorini study of Brazilian conductors (2022).

From this perspective, whether conducting is a primary or contributory factor leading to reports of discomfort and dysfunction feature, and the directionality of those relationships, cannot be determined from a cross-sectional design (Rotter et al., 2020). The anatomic source, chronicity, or symptomatic nature underlying reports of discomfort and functional limitations were not explored. The timing of the survey occurred during restrictions imposed by the Covid-19 pandemic, which may have reduced conducting hours and environmental exposures and created an underestimation of current symptoms compared with pre-pandemic levels of activity. Survey refinement and follow-up during non-pandemic restrictions will allow for results confirmation.

This investigation brings increased awareness to the complex nature of PRMDs in conductors, including the role of personal and environmental stressors and the extent to which conductors alter their conducting or use preventative strategies to mitigate pain and discomfort. Future directions for this research include the development of a valid and reliable survey tool that can assess musculoskeletal pain and discomfort among a broad range of conducting populations, including those who work in all educational and professional contexts. Disseminating this type of survey internationally could yield a richer view on these issues among conductors across a diverse set of contexts. Among institutional conducting programs, more research is needed to assess the availability and nature of wellness interventions and movement instruction. The information from future studies could then guide the development of interdisciplinary curricular materials and best practices in conductor education.

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^[1] Including any combination of band, choir, orchestra, and other ensembles (e.g., jazz, new music, early music, and opera).